Global differences in attitudes to plagiarism

Academic institutions broadly condemn plagiarism – the act of presenting someone else’s work as one’s own. However, attitudes towards plagiarism vary around the world. Educators often assume that all students share the same understanding of plagiarism. Yet cultural and educational differences influence how plagiarism is perceived and addressed. Understanding these differences is important because universities are increasingly international. Therefore, educators need to bridge gaps in academic integrity expectations.

Western attitudes towards plagiarism

Western countries such as the United States and United Kingdom have long-established norms against plagiarism. Students in these countries typically learn from a young age that copying without credit is unacceptable. In the US, for example, children are taught to cite sources and value original work from primary school onwards (Campbell 2017). By the university level, institutions treat plagiarism as a serious academic offence. Western academic culture prizes individual authorship and intellectual property rights. Therefore, educators often see presenting another’s ideas as one’s own as a form of theft or fraud. Consequently, students and academics in Western Europe and North America demonstrate low tolerance for plagiarism. They expect clear attribution of sources. However, even with strict rules and early education, plagiarism still occurs. When it does occur, educators and administrators respond with strong disapproval and formal sanctions. This reaction reflects a shared cultural understanding that originality and proper citation are fundamental to scholarly integrity.

Confucian and collectivist traditions in East Asia

Attitudes towards plagiarism in East Asian countries such as China, Japan and South Korea emerge from different educational traditions. Collectivist cultural values and Confucian practices have historically shaped how students approach sources and authorship. In many East Asian schools, learning often emphasises memorisation and imitation of authoritative texts as a sign of respect for teachers and masters (Campbell 2017). Students are encouraged to absorb the wisdom of established scholars and reproduce it faithfully, rather than challenge or rephrase it. As a result, some students from these backgrounds may not initially view verbatim copying as unethical in the way Western educators do. In collectivist cultures, some consider knowledge communal or “universal” rather than individually owned. Citing a source might feel less critical. It can even be uncomfortable for a student taught to prioritise the group over the individual (Campbell 2017). This does not mean Asian students intend to cheat. Plagiarism might simply not be a well-defined concept in their prior education. They may assume the reader already knows the original source of famous ideas, so explicit citation seems unnecessary (Office of Research Integrity n.d.). Indeed, older studies suggested some Asian students were unfamiliar with the concept of plagiarism (Decker 1993). More recent evidence indicates that even when students know what plagiarism is, teachers in some places may simply ignore it. This approach sends the message that copying is not a serious concern (Office of Research Integrity n.d.). Consequently, these cultural differences can lead to misunderstandings when East Asian students enter Western academic environments. For instance, they might inadvertently plagiarise because practices accepted in their home country are suddenly deemed misconduct abroad. Nevertheless, attitudes in East Asia are changing. As universities adopt international standards and English-medium education expands, there is increasing emphasis on academic integrity and original writing. Indeed, surveys show that the vast majority of Chinese graduate students today condemn plagiarism as wrong. However, some are still unsure about the finer points of attribution. Over time, Eastern and Western attitudes may converge more, but significant differences in approach remain evident.

Eastern Europe and former Soviet regions

Historical and regional norms influence plagiarism attitudes in Eastern Europe and post-Soviet countries. Notably, research suggests that students in some former Soviet-bloc countries have been more accepting of plagiarism and academic misconduct (Heitman & Litewka 2011). They have shown greater tolerance than their Western European counterparts. Historically, decades of communist rule de-emphasised individual intellectual property and lacked robust academic integrity frameworks. These conditions contributed to a lenient view toward copying. Even after those countries transitioned politically, universities in parts of Eastern Europe did not initially prioritise anti-plagiarism measures. They did not enforce academic integrity to the same extent as Western institutions. For example, a comparative survey found that knowledge of plagiarism policies was lowest in Poland. In the same study, many students in Bulgaria could not even identify clear examples of plagiarism (Foltýnek & Čech 2012). This shows that awareness and education around plagiarism have been uneven across the continent. In practice, students and faculty in some Eastern European settings often hesitate to report cheating. Many have regarded certain kinds of copying or even collaboration as normal academic behaviour (Heitman & Litewka 2011). However, change is underway here as well. Many Eastern European universities are now implementing clearer academic integrity policies, especially as they partner with Western institutions and join international academic communities. Over the past decade, organisations and conferences on academic integrity have increasingly included Eastern European educators. Several countries in the region have also introduced new integrity regulations. Indeed, there is evidence that attitudes are shifting. Younger scholars and students are becoming less tolerant of plagiarism as global standards penetrate their institutions. Still, remnants of earlier attitudes persist, and it takes time for a culture of strict plagiarism intolerance to take root.

Latin America

In Latin America, attitudes toward plagiarism have been in flux. As recently as the 2000s, experts described Latin America as “lagging behind” other regions in confronting plagiarism and research misconduct (Vasconcelos et al. 2009). In Brazil, for example, plagiarism remained under-discussed for a long time. This was not because such misconduct never occurred, but because there were few initiatives to address the issue. Until the last decade, many universities in the region had only vague policies on plagiarism, and enforcement was often weak. Consequently, this silence could be interpreted by students as tacit permission. At the very least, it signalled that plagiarism was a low-priority issue. Moreover, educational practices in some Latin cultures have emphasised rote learning and reverence for authoritative sources. This approach, somewhat akin to the Confucian model, can lead students to reproduce texts without citation. However, awareness in Latin America has been rising. In the past 15 years, countries such as Brazil, Mexico, and Chile have started more serious conversations about academic integrity. Furthermore, research conferences and journal editorials in the region have begun to shine a light on plagiarism. They urge academics to recognise it as an ethical problem. Additionally, many universities have introduced honour codes, plagiarism-detection software, and formal disciplinary procedures for academic dishonesty. As a result, newer generations of Latin American students are more likely to have been taught about plagiarism and its consequences. Yet the degree of change varies by country and institution – the landscape is diverse. Some elite universities now uphold standards similar to those in North America or Europe, whereas other institutions are still developing responses. Overall, the trend is toward less tolerance for plagiarism, reflecting a global shift in attitudes. However, there is still progress to be made in embedding these values uniformly.

Middle East and Africa

Attitudes toward plagiarism in the Middle East and Africa are shaped by cultural norms and practical challenges. In many Middle Eastern societies, education has traditionally involved deep respect for authority and a focus on rote learning. These practices can inadvertently conflict with Western plagiarism norms. For instance, students often memorise and recite religious or classical texts verbatim as a respected practice. This habit could blur the line between learning and copying in an academic context. Research on academic integrity in the Muslim world suggests that plagiarism has been fairly common. This prevalence is not because educators condone it, but often because students lack training in citation practices. In some educational contexts, a degree of copying is even tolerated (Moten 2014). Additionally, some countries in these regions historically lacked comprehensive intellectual property laws and clear university plagiarism policies. This gap contributed to a more casual attitude toward copying. In sub-Saharan Africa, factors such as large class sizes, limited library resources, and language barriers have also played a role. Many students write in a second language, which can complicate understanding of citation rules. Consequently, students might plagiarise out of desperation or misunderstanding rather than deliberate intent. This is especially likely if they have not been taught how to paraphrase or credit sources properly. Indeed, surveys in African universities reveal a telling gap in attitudes. Most students say they disapprove of plagiarism in principle. Yet many still engage in it or believe it is sometimes unavoidable (Clarke et al. 2022). Importantly, attitudes across the Middle East and Africa are not monolithic. There are world-class universities with strict anti-plagiarism cultures, and there are institutions where enforcement remains minimal. Overall, tolerance for plagiarism tends to be higher on average than in Western countries (Heitman & Litewka 2011). Yet, as in other areas, there is movement toward stronger academic integrity. For example, universities and governments in the Gulf states have begun adopting Western-style accreditation standards that mandate robust plagiarism policies. Similarly, in Africa, networks of academics are raising awareness about research ethics and plagiarism prevention. The expansion of internet access and plagiarism detection tools has also exposed issues that were previously overlooked. As a result, both regions are gradually tightening their stance on plagiarism. However, practical challenges remain in ensuring that every student receives adequate guidance on proper scholarly practices.

Differences lie more in interpretation, awareness and context than in fundamental moral values.

Convergence and global trends

While there are clear cultural differences in attitudes to plagiarism, the gap may be narrowing as global academic integration increases. Students everywhere are becoming more exposed to international standards of academic honesty. Interestingly, a cross-cultural experiment found that children from the US, China and Mexico all disliked copying by age five. This suggests that a basic sense of plagiarism being “wrong” emerges early (Yang et al. 2014). This finding implies that outright approval of plagiarism is rare across cultures. Differences lie more in interpretation, awareness and context than in fundamental moral values. Another important factor is the internationalisation of higher education. Universities worldwide now often use the same plagiarism-detection tools and enforce similar policies that forbid copying. Moreover, many academics from developing countries undergo graduate training in Western institutions and internalise stricter norms. They then carry those expectations back home. Additionally, major scientific journals and conferences have global reach and uniformly reject plagiarism, pressuring researchers everywhere to follow suit. In recent years, countries that once paid little attention to academic misconduct have faced high-profile plagiarism scandals and journal retractions. These events have prompted public debate and shifted attitudes toward seeing plagiarism as a serious issue. Nonetheless, challenges persist. Cultural nuances continue to affect behaviour. For example, an international survey found that almost all Chinese and European researchers agreed that copying text without credit is plagiarism, yet only around two-thirds of respondents said the same about reusing someone’s ideas without credit (Yi et al. 2020). Both groups of researchers, however, overwhelmingly condemned direct, word-for-word copying as unacceptable (Yi et al. 2020). In some cultures, what Western academia calls “self-plagiarism” – reusing one’s own prior work without citation – might not carry the same stigma. Similarly, certain educational systems view peer collaboration more permissively under an ethos of helping others, which an outsider might misinterpret as cheating. Therefore, educators worldwide are called to foster academic integrity in a culturally sensitive way. This means not only enforcing rules but also clearly teaching why originality and attribution matter, while understanding students’ educational backgrounds. As the world of research and education becomes increasingly interconnected, attitudes toward plagiarism are aligning more closely with a common ideal of honesty and credit-giving. However, respecting cultural context remains key.

Conclusion

In conclusion, attitudes to plagiarism do differ by country and cultural background, particularly in terms of awareness and tolerance. However, there is a worldwide trend toward recognising plagiarism as unethical and harmful to scholarship. The differences that remain are largely historical and pedagogical, and they are narrowing as academic integrity becomes a global value. By appreciating these nuances and addressing them through education, the international academic community can work towards a more uniform understanding that plagiarism is unacceptable, no matter where you are.

References

Campbell, A. (2017). Cultural differences in plagiarism. Turnitin Blog. [Online]. Available at: https://www.turnitin.com/blog/cultural-differences-in-plagiarism

Clarke, O., Chan, W. Y. D., Bukuru, S., Logan, J., & Wong, R. (2022). Assessing knowledge of and attitudes towards plagiarism and ability to recognize plagiaristic writing among university students in Rwanda. Higher Education, 85(2), 247–263.

Foltýnek, T., & Čech, F. (2012). Attitude to plagiarism in different European countries. Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, 60(7), 71–80.

Heitman, E., & Litewka, S. (2011). International perspectives on plagiarism and considerations for teaching international trainees. Urologic Oncology: Seminars and Original Investigations, 29(1), 104–108.

Moten, A. (2014). Plagiarism, culture, the Middle East and Westernization. Plagiary, 7(1), 56–71.

Office of Research Integrity (n.d.). Cultural-linguistic considerations of plagiarism and self-plagiarism. [Online]. Available at: https://ori.hhs.gov/cultural-linguistic-considerations-plagiarism-and-self-plagiarism

Vasconcelos, S., Leta, J., Costa, L., Pinto, A., & Sorenson, M. M. (2009). Discussing plagiarism in Latin American science: Brazilian researchers begin to address an ethical issue. EMBO Reports, 10(7), 677–682.

Yang, F., Shaw, A., Garduño, E., & Olson, K. R. (2014). No one likes a copycat: A cross-cultural investigation of children’s response to plagiarism. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 121, 111–119.

Yi, N., Nemery, B., & Dierickx, K. (2020). Perceptions of plagiarism by biomedical researchers: an online survey in Europe and China. BMC Medical Ethics, 21(1), 1–16.